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Before the Romans came
In the 1st century BC Britain was inhabited by Celtic tribes who had migrated from the Continent over the preceding six hundred or so years of what archaeologists call the Iron Age.
The people, collectively known as
the Britons (Or Ancient Britons) were divided into distinct tribes (such as
the Trinovantes of what is now Essex & Hertfordshire, the Brigantes of
Yorkshire and the Atrebates of the Thames Valley) ruled over by Kings or,
quite often Queens.
Although there were some tribal capitals
referred to as ‘towns’ such as Camulodunum (The capital of the Trinovantes
at Colchester), society was overwhelmingly rural, occupying villages of large,
round, thatched huts set within extensive fields, often laid out on carefully-surveyed,
grid-iron patterns suggesting a fundamentally aristocratic, hierarchical system
of organisation and ownership. Kings and tribal leaders were certainly warlike,
and were able to mobilise massive manpower in the construction of vast defensive
‘hill forts’. These complex, concentric systems of ramparts and stockades
which served variously as fortresses, defended settlements and refuges for
people and their animals in times of trouble are still a feature of the landscape
throughout Britain.
Respected by the Romans for their
temperance in peace and bravery on the battle field, the Britons were however
considered somewhat archaic for their use of war chariots, drawn frantically
at enemy lines in order to launch javelins or for the warrior to leap into
the fray armed with a short stabbing sword and a beautiful bronze shield.
Skilled in weaving, pottery and metalwork, the Britons were also traders, maintaining extensive contacts on the continent and trading with the Phoenicians of North Africa, who visited Britain for its valuable tin and lead, mined in Cornwall and the Mendips respectively.
As the 1st century BC became
the 1st century AD, the wealthier tribes of the South East were
increasingly adopting some of the trappings of Roman-style culture, such as
the beautiful gold coins minted at Colchester by King Cunobelenus
(“Old King Cole” a.k.a. “Cymbeline”), King of the Trinnovantes c.AD 10-42.
Wines and luxury goods from Gaul and the Mediterranean were imported paid
for by metals, hides, slaves and, apparently hunting dogs for which Britain
had something of a reputation. Close contact with their related tribesmen
in ‘Gaul’ (France) increasingly brought the Britons to the attention of the
Romans, expanding their Empire inexorably across Europe and increasingly concerned
that Britain was , or might be providing both a refuge and source of military
support to some of their troublesome, newly conquered Gaulish subjects.
Roman Timeline
55-54 BC: Julius Caesar invades Britain,
meeting fierce resistance but rapidly establishing control of much of the
South East. After receiving acts of tribute and submission from tribal leaders,
he withdraws to the Continent happy to position a potential conquest as the
“pacification” of a troublesome neighbour of the Roman province of Gaul (Modern
France)
AD 43: Emperor Claudius, (Uncle and successor of the mad Caligula who had previously announced an invasion of Britain which ended in farce on the Gaulish side of the Channel) orders the invasion of Britain with four legions under Aulus Plautius. South Eastern British capital Camulodunum (Colchester) falls to the Romans. British leader Caractacus is defeated but escapes to lead ongoing guerrilla campaigns against the occupying forces.
.
AD 44: Roman general Vespasian
captures the Dorset hill-forts, leaving the battle-scarred skeletons of troops
to be discovered nearly two thousand years later at sites such as Maiden Castle
AD 47: Aulus Plautius, who led
the invasion of Britain, is received as a hero in Rome. Ostorius Scapula
governs all territory South East of the Severn-Trent line but the Iceni tribe
revolt against a Roman order to surrender their weapons
AD
49: Roman Colonia (citizen-colony) primarily settled by retired Roman
soldiers is founded at Camulodunum (Colchester). Romans already hold the important
lead mines of the Mendip Hills and begin conquest of South Wales.
AD 51: British resistance leader Caratacus is defeated in North Wales and, having fled to seek refuge with Queen Cartimandua in the North is handed over to the Romans. He is triumphantly paraded as a prisoner in chains through Rome but eventually allowed to live peacefully in Rome on a pension from the state, having impressed the Emperor and Senate by his proud bearing.
AD 52: Guerrilla war flares up
in South East Wales
c.AD 55: Didus Gallus, Governor
of Britain intervenes on the side of Queen Cartimandua of the Brigantes tribe
in their civil war between pro- and anti-roman dynastic factions.
AD 60-61: Forced annexation of territory sparks revolt of the Iceni of Norfolk under Queen Boudicca. Other tribes join the Iceni. Camulodunum (Colchecter) Londinium (London) & Verulameum (St Albans) are burned and the inhabitants slaughtered. Romans Legions campaigning against the hostile druids in the far West of Britain head back and arrive at Watling Street to defeat Boudicca’s revolt, after which she commits suicide.
AD 66: Roman authorities sufficiently confident to withdraw one legion from Britain.
AROUND THIS TIME THE INDUSTRIAL-SCALE PRODUCTION OF COARSE, GREY POTTERY BEGAN IN AND AROUND ALICE HOLT FOREST, EVENTUALLY DOMINATING THE MARKET FOR UTILITARIAN HOUSEHOLD WARE IN THE EXPANDING CAPITAL OF LONDINIUM
AD 68: Trebellius Maximus, Governor of Britain
challenges Galba ,but fails to attract the support of the Legions stationed
in Britain
AD 69: Emperor Nero's death in
June sparks mutiny of Roman army in Britain. Four Emperors in rapid succession
culminating in Vespasian, founder of the Flavian dynasty.
AD
71: Emperor
Vespasian orders further conquest in Britain. Quintus Petilius Cerialis successively
conquers the North over the next three years, subduing the Brigantes and building
a legionary fortress at Eburacum (York) and garrison forts as far north as
Luguvalium (Carlisle).
AD 74-78: Roman governor Sextus Julius
Frontinus gradually conquers the Silures and Ordovices tribes giving the Romans
control of mainland Wales at last. Roman power maintained from legionary fortresses at Isca (Caerleon)
and Deva (Chester)
AD 78: Romans complete conquest
of Wales and effectively neutralise the rebellious Druid priesthood by invading
Mona (Anglesey)
AD 79: Grand opening of
Verulamium's (St Albans) civic centre takes place
AD 79-onwards: Local aristocrats and tribal kings are encouraged to abandon ancient British Celtic culture and adopt the trappings of 'Civilisation' as witnessed by finds such as the impressive Romano-British palace at Fishbourne, near Chichester, and the increasing popularity of urban living among the Celtic population , at least in the South East.
AD
82:Roman
governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, having subdued South West Scotland
contemplates the invasion of Ireland with 10,000 soldiers, but abandons the
plan.
AD 84: Agricola defeats Caledonian tribes of the Scottish Highlands at the Battle of Mons Graupius and establishes that Britain is truly an island by ordering the navy to circumnavigate Northern Scotland
AD 86: Another legion withdrawn
from Britain
cAD 87-90: Northernmost legionary
fortress (Inchtuthill in Tayside) in Britain is evacuated only a few years
after it was built due to pressure for troops to defend other parts of the
Empire (Notably Dacia in modern day Romania & Moldova)
cAD 80-90 AROUND THIS TIME THE ALICE HOLT POTTERS SUFFER DECLINING PRODUCTION DUE TO COMPETITION FOR THE LONDON MARKET FROM MORE LOCAL SOURCES
cAD 90-98: More retired soldiers
settled in colonia towns at Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) and Colonia Nerva
Glevensis (Goucester) reflecting the increasing Romanisation of the North
and West
AD 100: With the new Emperor Trajan requiring border stability in order to free up troops for campaigns in Dacia, the Romans withdraw from most of Scotland and establish the “Stanegate Line” of roads, forts and signal stations as a new frontier between the Tyne and Solway.
AD 122: Emperor Hadrian orders the construction of a 73-mile wall across northern Britain separating the civilised, definitively Roman-controlled area from the Northern barbarian tribes of Caledonia over whom the Romans exercised only tenuous authority.
AD 142: Emperor Antoninus Pius orders
construction of the Antonine Wall, north of Hadrian's Wall. This 37 mile earth
& timber rampart, linking the Forth & Clyde aimed to help subdue the
tribes of southern Scotland, thus protecting more settled areas south of Hadrian’s
Wall.
AD 155: Fire destroys much of central Verulamium (St Albans). Trouble in the North suppressed by Julius Verus.
AD
163: Antonine
Wall is evacuated and Romans withdraw to Hadrian's Wall
AD 180-184: Full-scale war erupts in
Northern Britain. Periodic fighting occurred over a long period in the area
around Hadrian’s Wall. Such was the insecurity of the times that many towns
further south hurriedly constructed defensive walls or ramparts.
AD 193-196: Instability & civil
war in the Empire. Having first sided with Septimus Severus, British-based
rebel general Decimus Clodius Albinus uses troops from Britain to invade Gaul
and is hailed as emperor by the legions
of Britain and Spain
AD
197:
Clodius Albinus is defeated by Septimus & killed at the Battle of Lugdunum
(Lyons) Maeatae tribe exploit the instability by launching raids from Caledonia
AD 197-198: Roman military commissioners arrive
in Britain to suppress opposition from supporters of defeated Clodius Albinus.
Virius Lupus takes military action and re-builds many forts to prevent rebellious
tribes in the North taking further advantage of the unstable political situation.
AD 205-212: During this period Emperor
Septimius Severus regains the Imperial grip on Britain. He wages war to free
Northern Britain from the repeated rebellions and invasions, in the area of
Hadrian’s Wall which is largely rebuilt
at this time by Alfenus Senecio. Ultimately Septimus’s efforts are inconclusive,
with the Romans soon bogged down amidst ongoing guerrilla attacks by Caledonians
& Maeatae.
AD
211-212:
Emperor Septimus Severus dies at Eburacum (York) leaving Britain divided into
two separate Roman provinces Britannia Superior in the south and Britannia
Inferior in the North. The campaigns to pacify the “Protectorate” between
the two frontier walls are largely dropped as Septmus’s two sons return to
Rome to indulge their rivalry over the Imperial succession. One of them, Caracalla,
extends Roman citizenship to all freeborn provincials.
AD
250: The
beginning of the ‘Barbarian Invasions’ .The Scots, from whom Scotland would
eventually take its name first appear on the west coast of Caledonia creating
pressure on the native Picts, while tribes from Northern Germany, the Frisian
coast of the Netherlands and Jutland in Southern Denmark begin to raid British
coasts. These people became collectively known as the ‘Anglo-Saxons’ who would
eventually turn Roman ‘Britannia’ into the country we call ‘England’.
AD 255: Work begins on a riverside
wall in Londinium (London) one of many defensive projects in Britain, reflecting the deteriorating
security situation.
AD
259-260: 'Gallic Empire' of Britain, Gaul and Spain recognises the usurper
Postumus as Emperor while Gallienus is recognised elsewhere
c.AD 270 REVIVAL IN PRODUCTION LEVELS AT ALICE HOLT
POTTERIES WITH INCREASED SPECIALISATION IN THE PRODUCTION OF JARS IN STANDARD
1.1 & 108 LITRE CAPACITIES, PROBABLY USED FOR TRANSPORTING LOCALLY GROWN
WINE.
AD
274: 'Gallic
Empire' is reabsorbed by the Roman Empire under Aurelian after the defeat
and surrender of Tetricus, one of two short term successors to Postumus who
had been killed by his own troops in AD 268.
AD
287:Carausius,
Admiral of the fleet defending the ‘Saxon Shore’ (The South Eastern coast
of Britain) is accused by the Emperor Maximian of allowing Anglo-Saxon pirates
to raid the coast , only to relieve them of their plunder for personal gain. He usurps authority and declares himself Emperor of a seceded realm
consisting of Britain & (Until
his troops were defeated by Roman loyalists) Northern Gaul.
AD
293:
Britain-based usurper Carausius is assassinated and replaced by his treasurer,
Allectus who maintains Britain as an independent province in defiance of Rome
AD 296: Britain re-conquered and Allectus killed by Constantius Chlorus, junior Emperor of the Western Empire during the “Tetrarchy”: a confused period when four Emperors (Two in the East and two in the west) shared power.The defeat of Allectus is thought to have taken place at a battle site in the Woolmer Forest, close to Alice Holt, where a hoard of nearly 30,000 coins, possibly the pay treasury of Allectus’s army was found. Constantius reclassifies Britain as a 'diocese' and divides it into four provinces - Maxima Caesariensis, Britannia Prima, Flavia Caesariensis and Britannia Secunda.
AD 306: Constantius dies on campaign at York. His son Constantine is hailed as emperor by the army in Britain, eventually defeats rival claimants and becomes sole Emperor of the Roman Empire, founding his new capital at Constantinople (Modern Istanbul in Turkey)
AD 314: The Edict of Milan ends
persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire, whilst Constantine personally
wavers between Christianity and paganism. The following year, three British
bishops are among the attendees at the Council of Arles
AD 343/344: Emperor Constans makes
a brief visit to Britain to quell fresh outbreaks of instability
c.AD 350: FURTHER EXPANSION OF ALICE HOLT POTTERY IN TERMS OF BOTH PRODUCTION VOLUME AND THE EXTENT OF ITS AREA OF MARKET PENETRATION. 30-60% OF POTTERY AT SITES IN AND AROUND LONDON COMES FROM ALICE HOLT SOURCES
AD 353:Emperor Constantius II sends
Paul 'the Chain' as leader of a military commission to suppress opposition
in Britain, resulting in the suicide of Martinus, Vicarus (Governor) of the
diocese of Britain
AD 360: Emperor Julian sends Lupicinus
to deal with raids by Picts and Scots
AD 367: 'Barbarian' raiders launch
a huge, coordinated attack on Roman Britain.
AD
369: Count Theodosius, sent by Emperor Valentinian
drives out the 'barbarians' and restores Britain's defences. But invasions
continue, such that by AD 400, non-Roman kingdoms are established in the area
north of Hadrian's Wall, which the Romans have now completely lost any authority
over. Further south the threat is still primarily from mobile sea-borne raiding
parties, reflected in the building of new signal stations along the Yorkshire
coast
AD
383: The
Western Empire descends further into instability. Magnus Maximus is hailed
Roman Emperor by the army in Britain. He campaigs in Gaul, defeating and killing
emperor Gratian (of Gaul, Britain and Spain). He then drives emperor Valentinian
II (of Illyricum, Africa and Italy) from Rome to secure his position in the
Western Empire. He retains power for five years before being defeated and
executed by emperor Theodosius I.
AD
400: After
successful campaigns to defend Britain against Picts, Scots and Anglo-Saxon
raiders, Stilicho, the commander of the Roman armies in the west, rebuilds
many defensive structures. But he also withdraws large numbers of troops from
Britain to defend Italy against the invasion the Goths. The remaining garrison
in Britain is simply too undermanned to successfully resist further ‘barbarian'
raids.
AD
409:
History becomes increasingly fragmentary as the Western Empire descends
inexorably into the ‘Dark Ages’ but it seems Britons, being forced to deal with
Anglo-Saxon invasions largely alone reputedly throws off their allegiance to
Rome, expelling the Imperial administration
AD 410: Technically the ‘end of
Roman Britain’. Britons, living amidst a permanent crisis, with all major
Roman military forces withdrawn to the Continent and barbarians attacking
throughout the country send a vain appeal for assistance to the Western Roman
Emperor Honorius, who responds by recommending that citizens should organise
their own defence, thereby freeing them of further obligations as citizens
of the Empire. The Romanised citizenry made further vain appeals for assistance
from the Empire right up to the middle of the 5th Century
cAD 420 AROUND THIS TIME LARGE SCALE POTTERY MANUFACTURE AT ALICE HOLT RAPIDLY DECLINES, CEASING BEFORE AD 450, PROBABLY DUE TO THE BREAK DOWN OF THE MONEY ECONOMY THE INCREASING DANGER AND DIFFICULTY OF TRANSPORTING GOODS OVER LONG DISTANCES AND THE PRESENCE OF GROWING CONTINGENTS OF FOREIGN BARBARIAN MERCENERIES AND SETTLERS IN KEY MARKETS.
After the Romans Left
Thereafter we enter the true “Dark Ages”: the period of Arthurian legend.
As successive waves of Germanic tribesmen spread westwards over Britain, the remnants of Romano-British civilisation, with its highly organised civil and military administration, materially sophisticated, urbanised culture and, by now largely Christian culture fought a losing battle against the inexorable drift into an illiterate, mainly pagan society of rural peasants ruled by a warrior nobility.
Roman infrastructure, already in some
disrepair fell increasingly into disuse. Formerly impressive towns became
de-populated squatter settlements, many eventually being abandoned altogether.
Coinage ceased to circulate sufficiently to support a money economy. Some
roads and bridges became so disused that eventually all trace of them was
lost and many of the great country villas were reduced to little more than
cowsheds and barns before collapsing or being plundered for building materials.
In the far North the Scots established their Western Highland kingdom of Dalriada, gradually expanding into the Pictish lands to the east while the Borders and Western Britain fragmented into squabbling, Celtic British kingdoms such as Strathclyde, Rhegged, Elmet, Powys, Gwynedd and Kernow and many Romano-Britons found refugeaccross the sea in the area that still bears their name: ‘Brittany’.
As the Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians
turned increasingly from plunder and piracy to full scale migration, dozens
of Germanic tribal micro-states and chiefdoms sprang up obliterating most
of what remained of the Roman way of life. These tiny fiefdoms coalesced into
recognisable Kingdoms, with the “Heptarchy” of Essex, Sussex, Wessex, East
Anglia, Mercia, Kent and Northumbria emerging as rival pagan Anglo-Saxon kingdoms
in the following century before eventually morphing into the Kingdom of England
after some 300 years.
It’s true that four centuries of rule over this island by the greatest imperial power of the Ancient World left traces still discernable: in place names, in field boundaries and road systems, in the layout of towns and in the British people themselves and the fabric of their culture. But for all its grandeur, the material legacy of the mighty Roman Empire rapidly faded almost beyond recognition in the countries that became England, Scotland and Wales.
The Celtic culture, which the ‘civilising’ Romans had sought to supplant, or at least ‘improve’ proved more enduring, at least in the North and West, beyond the main areas of Anglo-Saxon conquest. Here Celtic art, language, literature and law entered something of a golden period and within it the Roman inheritance maintained a certain continuity. Throughout the ‘Dark Ages’ it was in the Celtic West in Ireland that the flickering candle of Romano-Celtic culture continued to burn brightest.
It was through the Celtic monastic missions which gradually converted the illiterate, heathen Anglo-Saxons to Christianity that the threads of the Roman legacy were re-introduced into the weave of English culture, paving the way for England to take its eventual place as one of the strongest nation states of medieval Europe.